Discovery of Galaxies: 2012

The Moon

Various names and descriptions have been given to the Moon from culture to culture and from civilization to civilization. These names and descriptions came about mainly out of religious beliefs and from various interpretations of those who were fascinated by it, feared it or simply worshipped it. The goddess of Moon in Roman has been given the name "Luna", while the Greek named it Selene, one of the many Greek deities. By studying and analyzing Moon rocks, scientists believe that the moon was created as a result of a collision of an ancient planet with the planet earth, approximately four billions years ago. The Moon has two faces (sides), the side which we see all the time, and the side which we can not see, sometimes referred to as the dark side of the Moon. The only way to see the other side is by going to space. The connection between the Moon, the living and the dead has been with us since pre-historic times. Therefore, the Moon was, and still is the focus of many people in various cultures across the globe, but in particular among poets and writers, who looked at it and wrote about what they saw, what they felt and what they imagined.

Sadly, according to scientists, the Moon is moving away from us (from earth) a few centimetres every year!

Looking at the full Moon, the feeling certainly may vary from one person to another. You may feel a little bit "safer" looking at "The Full Moon" at noon, if you can see it, and may be with a different feeling when you see "The Full Moon" at midnight - clearly that depends on who you are, where you are, your gender and whether you are alone or with someone close to you!

Historically speaking, romance and the Moon have always been part of each other and part of the inspirations for love and lovers, as well as part of the emotions and minds of those who simply dedicated their time to write about it.

In addition to the above, some believe that even mental illness can be exacerbated when there is a full Moon! Not to mention the use of the Moon by horror writers and filmmakers who, by scaring their audience, made their own fame and fortune.

The various love stories associated with the Moon, whether real, exaggerated or simply made up, still form a big part of the human psyche and human culture; therefore, it is an important part of the human insight, with or without the emotional or spiritual connection.

The Moon can also be associated with various witchcrafts, sorceries, spells, as well as with the dead.

Witchcrafts or witches use the cycles of the Moon as part of their ceremonies, initiations and festivals.

When it comes to those who left this world, then the Moon plays another important part. Many spiritualists and some Far Eastern religions believe that some departed souls are associated with the Moon, during various stages; it could be related to a recent or none-recent death. According to some of these religions/spiritualists, the Moon work as a temporary (or "sometime" even permanent) station for the departed souls before moving on to the next world.

The Moon is a natural satellite of the earth and, therefore it has an important part to play in relation to life on earth and the earth's general environment. That means, without the Moon, the world will be a different place and life as we know it today will be very difficult to continue, if not impossible.

Observing the Moon

Our moon is a good astronomical target for stargazers for many good reasons. First of all it is very straightforward to identify. If you can't find it in the sky, it probably simply means it is not currently there in the sky, whether because it's a new moon or because it's already set behind the horizion. Secondly it is the nearest thing for us to view here on Earth, and is the only object other than the Sun that may be observed as something besides a dot of light using the human eye alone. This permits us all to examine its surface area with good detail with optical aids that are offered to everyone. The very best telescopes are typically not even a necessity to watch the Moon, merely a pair of binoculars or even just just the naked eye.

The initial thing you ought to know about viewing our Moon is its cycle of phases. The moon moves around our planet nearly every 4 weeks. During this period the Moon's position in regards to the Earth and Sun changes, and consequently the way in which it looks illuminated from our perspective fluctuates as well. While the Moon is in back of the planet Earth, we perceive the total lit up portion of the Moon; this is called a full moon. Since it circles around the our planet, over time less of the Moon's illuminated exterior will become visible to us on Earth. During this time period the Moon is regarded to be waning. As it is waning it's going to pass through the stages referred to as Gibbous, Quarter, and Crescent, each exhibiting less and less of its lit up area, until finally it gets to the New Moon phase. During this time period the Moon is positioned in between our planet and the Sun and therefore is not visible in the evening sky. After that, it starts the waxing phase and goes through the above mentioned phases, this time in the opposite direction, until finally it's full again.

Many people would certainly believe that the best stage to head out stargazing for the Moon would certainly be the Full Moon phase, this is really incorrect. Watching throughout the Full Moon is actually considerably stressful on the eyes, because at this time it can be seven percent as luminous the Sun. Observing throughout the Full Moon is additionally not optimal since hardly any dark areas tend to be present on the surface of the Moon and as a result its physical appearance is likely to appear washed over.

Viewing through the intermediate Moon phases is undoubtedly optimal, given that the shadows developed by the perspective of the Sun makes all the features stand out at the observer and creates excellent contrasts on the Moon's exterior. The best quality contrasts can be seen along side the terminator, or the term for the separating line between the dark and illuminated parts of the Moon.

The Moon's surface is full of numerous interesting features which are superb to observe. The most widely known elements may just be the many craters which are found on the Moon. These craters were created by asteroids many years ago from the creation years of the Moon and our planet. Additionally, you will notice massive darker sectors upon the Moon, called Mare, which is latin for "seas". These are not really waters but instead great areas of rock made from volcanoes. In addition, the same as the Earth, the Moon has a variety of various mountains and valleys which can be seen too. It is best that you find a map of the moon, in order to identify and read about the individual topographical features found on the Moon.

The Origins of The Solar System

We live in a universe of almost unimaginable size. To give you an idea of the scale, we can only use optical and radio methods to observe objects out to about 13,000 million light years away and nobody knows what lies beyond that. Closer to us we can see clusters of galaxies at distances out to about 750 million light years. The other galaxies of what is know as the Local Group of galaxies are all within 2.5 million light years of us. These galaxies are composed of millions and billions of stars.

Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is a typical spiral galaxy. This means is looks like a great swirling whirlpool with spiral arms extending out from the center. The Milky Way galaxy is 100,000 light years in diameter and our own star, the Sun, lies on the edge of one of the spiral arms. The Sun is about 30,000 light years from the center of the Milky Way galaxy and takes 225 million years to complete one orbit around the galactic center.

According to modern scientific theory the star we call the Sun was formed about 4,500 million years ago. The Solar System originated when gravitational forces caused what is called the solar nebula to collapse and coalesce into a spinning disc with the central mass forming the Sun. The planets formed from large clouds of gas and dust which gradually built up over million of years as they orbited the central mass of the disc.

The central mass continued to build up in size and as it did the gravitational field it exerted grew stronger. As the gravitational field grew stronger the central mass pulled in more gas and dust and grew even larger.

Eventually, the gravitational force became so powerful that the temperature and pressure at the center of the mass rose high enough to cause hydrogen atoms to undergo fusion into helium atoms. This fusion reaction releases enormous amounts of energy and is the source of the Suns power.

Now illuminated by the Suns rays, the planets of our solar system continued to form and transform. All of the planets have undergone a great deal of change since they first accreted. These changes were brought about in a variety of ways, including violent collisions which resulted in craters that can still be seen today. The planets also went through changes caused by volcanism, melting, structural deformation and the release of gases from deep within.

The planets of our Solar System are generally divided into two groups. The inner planets, which include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars and the outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and until recently the Dwarf Planet Pluto. The inner planets are all characterized by having solid surfaces and are relatively small compared to the outer planets. The outer planets are all characterized by not having a solid surface and are often referred to as gas giants. The inner and outer planets are also separated by a band of asteroids orbiting between Mars and Jupiter.

Comets, meteors and asteroids can also be found orbiting the sun in large numbers from the outer reaches of the Solar System to very close to the Sun. Comets are balls of frozen liquids and dust which often follow eccentric orbits for outside the orbit of Dwarf Planet Pluto and only display their characteristic tails when their orbit brings them closer to the Sun. Asteroids and meteors are both made mainly of rock. The difference between asteroids and meteors is their size, meteors can be as small a grain of dust, asteroids can be miles in diameter and are sometimes called planetoids.

At the outer fringes of the Solar System beyond the orbit of Neptune is the Kuiper belt where at least three dwarf planets orbit. They are Ceres, Pluto and Eris and they are accompanied by millions of smaller objects about which little is known. At this time a variety of spacecraft are either on their way to the far reaches of the Solar System or are planned for the near future. It will be fascinating to see what wonders these space probes will tell us about the Solar System we call home.

Why is Our Solar System Flat?

Have you ever wondered why our solar system is flat. Except of course for comets and a few asteroids, all of our major planets orbit on the same plane, within a few degrees. I have often wondered about this and have searched for possible causes with no results until the first of this year (2008).

Besides our dog driving us crazy all day and all of a sudden being afraid to go outdoors, something else strange happen. I had been watching images from the SOHO satellite for comets, when the images stopped around 9:32 AM UT (Universal Time), on the 5th of January. The last c2 camera image was at 9:32 and the last c3 camera image was at 8:42 AM. I assumed that is was a problem with the web site and continued to check back during the next two days.

I also looked at some of the other satellite data and noticed something strange, I do not understand the data that is being shown but I can see that something did change on the morning of January 5th. The Proton Monitor (PM) is one of the scientific sensors on the SOHO spacecraft and on that morning it registered a sudden increase in the energy coming from the sun.

Everything returned to normal after about three days and all of the SOHO images were there, so it must have just been a glitch with the web site.

The Proton Monitor (PM) is a sub-sensor of the MTOF instrument, which is one of the 3 time- of-flight instruments comprising the CELIAS experiment on the SOHO spacecraft. MTOF determines high resolution mass spectra of heavy solar wind ions and uses a very wide bandwidth energy-per-charge analyzer to maximize counting statistics.

What looks like occurred was an interplanetary shock. The most recent shocks occurred on December 17th, October 25th, and September 27th 2007. These are most likely due to solar flares.

In 2004 NASA reported the largest shock ever recorded:

Earth's Safe Zone Became Hot Zone During Legendary Solar Storms 12.15.04. The beauty of science is that nothing is for certain. There are times when scientists think they have something figured out and then nature throws them for a loop. Just such an event happened last fall when the Sun erupted in some massive, record-shattering explosions that hurled billion of tons of electrified gas toward Earth.

All of this technical information got me looking at information from other satellites and one report that caught my attention from the Ulysses Solar Spacecraft. Ulysses was placed in a polar orbit around the Sun, perpendicular to the orbit of the planets.

The following has been taken from:

ULYSSES STATUS REPORTS

by R.G. Marsden,

Ulysses Project Scientist, ESA

Science Highlights

Interstellar dust, which enters the heliosphere with the same velocity as neutral interstellar gas, was detected first by Ulysses. The incoming flux is expected to remain constant but, once inside the heliosphere, the dust particles are subject to forces exerted by the sun's gravitational field, solar radiation pressure and, since the dust is electrically charged, the heliospheric magnetic field (HMF). Gravity and radiation pressure affect the more massive grains, but the motion of low-mass interstellar dust is dominated by the magnetic force.

Theory indicates that changes in the HMF causes a solar cycle variation in the dust distribution. The dust is deflected toward higher latitudes (defocused) when the polar cap field is outward in the north hemisphere and the dust is deflected equator-ward (focused), when the north polarity is inward.

What all this lead me to conclude was that over time as interstellar dust collected around the Sun, the larger more massive grains with metal content gathered in orbits around the Sun's equator. Less dense material that formed comets remained in random orbits.

Now I am wondering why all of the orbits are in the same direction?

If you look at the moon and all the craters, or at the shooting stars at night, you began to realize that there is a material flying around in space. The more I learn the more interesting it becomes, I even hope someday to purchase a telescope!

The Beauty and Mystery of the Planet Venus

Venus is the second planet from the Sun and is the sixth largest. It is the brightest object in the night sky except for the Moon. Venus orbits the Sun once every 224.7 Earth days and gets as close to the Sun as 107.476 million kilometers and as far away from the Sun as 108.942 million kilometers. This makes the orbit of Venus less elliptical and more circular than any other planets. The temperature on the surface of Venus can reach as high as 740 degrees Kelvin. This is due to a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect whereby carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Venus traps the Suns heat inside. This makes Venus the hottest planet in the Solar System. Venus is even hotter than Mercury despite being farther away from the Sun.

Venus is 12,100 kilometers in diameter and has a mass of 4.869e+24 kilograms. This makes Venus similar to the Earth and has often been called Earths sister planet. But the similarities end there. One major difference between the Earth and Venus is that Venus rotates on its axis from east to west, which means if you lived on Venus you would see the Sun rise in the west and set in the east. The atmosphere on Venus is mostly carbon dioxide choked with sulfuric acid and has a pressure at the surface more than 92 times the pressure at sea level on Earth. Unlike the Earth, Venus does not have a magnetic field generated by its iron core. This may be the result of how slowly Venus rotates on its axis. The only magnetic field Venus has is very weak and is produced by the interaction of the solar wind and the ionosphere of Venus.

The surface of Venus is difficult to see through the thick, dense clouds and the first crude images of the surface were obtained using ground based radar. More detailed images were obtained by the Magellan spacecraft which was launched to Venus on May 4, 1989 and spent four and a half years radar mapping 98 percent of the surface of Venus. Later, the European Space Agency launched the Venus Express on November 9, 2005 and on April 11, 2006 it slipped into a polar orbit around Venus. These probes have now provided us with an accurate map of Venus.

Most of the surface of Venus is relatively flat plains created by giant pools of lava. Venus has thousands of small volcanoes and hundreds of large volcanoes many of which are over 100 kilometers in diameter. There are fairly large craters scattered at random all over the surface of Venus. These craters are more than 2 kilometers wide and smaller craters do not exist because smaller meteors burn up in the thick atmosphere of Venus. The map of Venus is dominated by two large highland areas, the Ishtar Terra, where the Maxwell Montes, the highest mountain can be found and the Aphrodite Terra highlands.

More missions to Venus are planned for the future and NASAs MESSENGER spacecraft just completed two flybys of Venus in October 2006 and June 2007 while on its way to Mercury. A spacecraft called BepiColombo, which was launched by the European Space Agency, will also perform two flybys of Venus on its way to Mercury. Japan is planning to launch the Planet-C Venus climate orbiter in 2010 and NASA has proposed a spacecraft called VISE the Venus In-Situ Explorer which will actually land on Venus. Once on the surface the Venus In-Situ Explorer will take a core sample and examine it. These mission to Venus will tell us more about the chemical composition and climate on Earths sister planet.

The Star We Call The Sun

The Sun is called Sol in Latin and that is where the term Solar System comes from. It is a typical main-sequence star and is by far the largest and most massive object in our Solar System. The Sun contains 99.8 percent of all the matter in the Solar System with the planet Jupiter taking up most of the rest. The Sun is a population one, GV2 class star and is sometimes referred to as a typical star and that is true in many respects. However the Sun is actually larger than most of the other stars in the same class as the Sun.

The Sun is composed of 74 percent hydrogen, 25 percent helium and traces of other elements. The temperature at the Suns core which is considered the inner 20 percent, is approximately 15.6 million degrees Kelvin, the pressure is 250 billion atmospheres and the mass density is more than 150 times that of water. Under such extreme conditions nuclear fusion takes place where by hydrogen atoms are combined to from helium atoms. This reaction releases massive amounts of energy in the form of gamma rays and is responsible for the Suns 386 billion billion megawatt power output. During the course of their journey out to the surface these gamma rays are repeatedly absorbed and re-emitted at lower and lower temperatures. By the time the energy reaches the surface is has been reduced to mostly visible light and is carried through the last part of the way more by convection than radiation.

The convection zone is the Suns outer layer down to about 70 percent of the Suns radius. It is an area where thermal convection takes place in the form of great thermal columns. These thermal columns are heated by nuclear fusion taking place in the Suns core and rise up to the Suns surface where they release their energy out into space in the form of sunlight and particles. As the thermal columns discharge their energy they cool and sink back down in the Suns interior where they are reheated and back up to surface again in a great cycle. The tops of these great thermal columns can be seen on the surface of the Sun in the form of what is called solar granulation and supergranulation.

The surface layer of the Sun that we can see is called the photosphere and has a temperature of about 5800 degrees Kelvin. Above the photosphere are five layers that compose the Suns atmosphere. They are the temperature minimum, the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona and the heliosphere. The temperature minimum region extends from the photosphere up to 2000 kilometers and has a temperature of about 4000 degrees Kelvin. This is cool enough for molecules such as water and carbon monoxide to exist and they can be detected by their absorption spectra.

The chromosphere extends from the top of the temperature minimum region up another 2000 kilometers and is named for the Greek word chromo which means color. The chromosphere can be seen as a flash of color right at the start and the end of a total solar eclipse of the Sun. Strangely enough, the temperature of the chromosphere gradually increases with altitude up to about 100,000 degrees Kelvin at the top.

Above the chromosphere is a transition region where the temperature rises rapidly to about one million degrees Kelvin. This temperature increase is caused by what is known as a phase transition of the element helium present in the transition region. The transition region does not have a well defined altitude and is in constant motion. The transition region is not easily seen from Earth but can be observed by space based instruments operating in the far ultraviolet region of the spectrum.

After the chromosphere is the corona which is much larger than the previous layers of the Suns atmosphere and extends far out into space. The corona is characterized by solar prominences which are immense clouds of super heated glowing gas that has erupted from the upper chromosphere. The corona can be clearly seen during total eclipses of the Sun and is very spectacular to see. The corona is composed of charged particles that become what we call the solar wind as they radiate outward from the Sun at 450 kilometers per second and are responsible for the aurora borealis.

Beyond the corona is the heliosphere which is also know as the magnetosphere. The heliosphere is immensely strong and extends far beyond the orbit of the dwarf planet Pluto. The solar wind travels outward along the heliosphere until it collides with the helipads about 50 astronomical units from the Sun.

When observed with the proper filters we can see sunspots on the surface of the Sun. These spots have a lower temperature than the surrounding area and therefore appear dark. Sunspots are areas of intense magnetic power where thermal convection from the interior of the Sun has been inhibited. Sunspots usually form pairs with opposite magnetic polarity and are responsible for solar flares. The number of sunspots varies over the course of an eleven year solar cycle.

The Sun has been active for about four and a half billion years and has used up about half of the hydrogen fuel it started with. The Sun will continue to burn for about another five billion years after which it will start to force helium to under go nuclear fusion into heavier elements. This will cause the Sun to swell up in size to the point of consuming the Earth and more as it becomes what is called a red giant. A billion years after becoming a red giant our Sun will finally collapse into a white dwarf. Incredibly, it could then take as much as one trillion years to cool off.

The Origins of The Solar System

Orbital Mechanics And Your Daily Life

January 3rd was an interesting date in orbital mechanics; it represented the day when the Earth was closest to the sun (perihelion) and the moon was farthest from the Earth (apogee). The first only happens once per year; the second happens every lunar orbit - every 29 days. These two effects have a lot of star watching history.

The Earth orbits the sun, with one orbit being one year. While it orbits the sun, it spins on its axis, and each spin on the axis makes for a day. While the Earth rotates around the sun at a bit over 30 kilometers per second (108,000 km per hour!), and is spinning like a top (at around 0.45 km/second) you or I don't feel this motion - though it is noticeable because the combination of these two motions sets the yearly procession of the constellations and the day-night cycle...and is why some telescopes have clock drives to keep them pointed at a target once it's been set.

What do perihelion and lunar apogee mean to you? Well, when it comes to observation, the difference is a function of the eccentricity of the orbits. Eccentricity, if it's been a while since your algebra class, is the ratio that defines the distance between two focal points of an ellipse. For an orbit, eccentricity will always be between 0 and 1, anything of 1 or more isn't an orbit - it's a object flying through the solar system on a hyperbolic path.

Earth's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167, which means that the difference between closest approach to the sun and farthest approach to the sun is 0.0167% of the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun. The Moon's orbit is somewhat more eccentric, at 0.05.

From an observational standpoint, the difference in visual size between perihelion and aphelion (the farthest distance from the Earth to the Sun) is minimal; the average difference between the Earth and the Sun is 500 light seconds, or about 150,000,000 km. 0.0167% of that is about 2.5 million km of difference below the average, and aphelion is about 2.5 million km farther away. Because the sun is so far away, that variation in distance, as far as it seems to us, makes almost no difference in the visual size of the sun. For the moon, the difference translates into something that would be a noticeable difference in angular size - if the events didn't happen 15 days apart in a different phase of the moon. If you can catch a photograph of the full moon at perigee and apogee on different occasions, you'll notice that the moon appears almost 10% larger - about 4.1 arc seconds larger at perigee than apogee.

The secondary effect of the lunar apogee/perigee combination is a difference in lunar tides, as tidal attraction works on the cube of the difference in forces. This is the variation in orbital mechanics that has the greatest impact on human society.

From a standpoint of living on Earth, one of the oddities of Earth's perihelion is when it occurs. It occurs near the height of the summer for us (January 3rd), which means it's in the depth of the winter for the Northern hemisphere. There is a very small difference in total solar radiation (called instellation) of about 4% between January and July - though it does mean that seasons at aphelion are about 4 days longer due to Keplerian mechanics.

That may not sound like much, but it's significant due to the time of the year those differences come in compared to the seasons, and how this changes over time. Right now, the current cycle of perihelion and aphelion moderate Northern hemisphere summers and winters; over a 100,000 year cycle, the seasons that perihelion and aphelion occur in shift; these shifts are called Milankovic cycles, and the last time aphelion occurred during the Northern hemisphere's winter, we were in an ice age.. Some of the hottest climates in geological records appear to have occurred when the Earth's orbit was a bit more eccentric (variations in orbital eccentricity are also called Milankovic cycles), and perihelion and aphelion happened closer to the equinoxes.

This isn't to say that there aren't other contributing causes to variation in the Earth's climate, nor should we discount the effect of CO2 in the atmosphere. It is pointing out that there are LOTS of contributing causes, and some of them (the Earth's orbit) are well beyond our control.

So is the earth hotter in the southern hemisphere or the winters milder in the northern hemisphere due to Perihelion falling in January ? The answer is yes, but no more so than in your grandparents day or their great great great ... grandparents!

Haley's Comet and the Eta Aquarid Meteor Shower

The Eta Aquarids meteor shower was first isolated (and pinned to an orbital event) in the 1870s, when Lieutenant-Colonel G. L. Tupman observed them while sailing in the Mediterranean Sea. As with many astronomical observations of the era, it was catalogued and annotated; it wasn't until William Herschel corroborated the shower with the recent passing of Haley's Comet (and did an orbital plot) that the shower was tied to Halley's comet in 1876.

When observing meteor showers today as then, you will notice they appear to originate from a hidden point in the sky, this is called a radiant. The radiant for the Eta Aquarids is near the star Eta Aquarius, and varies in inferred size by 5 to 7 degrees depending on celestial mechanics. The meteors streak across the sky from a point in space near the star; tracing the paths they make will take you back to this point of origin.

Due to the Earth's orbit around the Sun, the angle the meteors appear at, shifts by a few degrees each night, moving generally eastward and towards the ecliptic (south in the Northern hemisphere, north for the Southern hemisphere.).

One of the unique aspects of the Eta Aquarids is that they're more readily observable from the Southern hemisphere; this resulted in a paucity of observations from their confirmation until the mid 1920s, when Australian and New Zealand amateur astronomers started tracking them. Most years, the Aquarids peak around the 5th or 6th of May, with roughly 30 meteors per hour showing up at the peak from the southern hemisphere, and roughly half that visible to people north of the Equator. (The reason for this is simply that the part of the sky the meteors radiate from is higher in the sky for the Southern hemisphere.) The predicted peaks are usually 15-20/hr for the Northern Hemisphere and for those of us fortunate enough to be in the Southern Hemisphere up to 35/hour on the morning of the 5th and 6th of May! The activity for 2011 is yet to be mapped.

Most meteor showers are gravel and sand-grain sized specks that are left over from the nucleus of a comet as it passes the Sun. Remember that a comet's tail is always going to point away from the sun, and that's where the "train" of gravel and sand comes from. You can think of the entire ellipsoidal path that Haley's comet makes around the sun as being filled with a streamer of sand and dust, all moving at its orbital velocity; over the course of decades, this orbit and the Earth's change, and eventually the Earth passes through this debris field. When it does, these objects impact the upper atmosphere and burn up.

If you're willing to stay up late (or get up early), this is a naked eye observation event. You'll have best viewing around 3 to 5 AM local time. If you're just getting into the fascinating hobby of watching the night skies, this is a good place to start. The objects are bright, move noticeably across the heavens, and only require your naked eyes to see them. More than a few will leave visible streaks that will linger for a half second or more, making them quite memorable and noticeable. The Eta Aquarids, like their sister shower the Orionids in October (also from Comet Haley), are one of the better annual showers to observe from the Southern Hemisphere, because of where they show up in the sky. In comparison to the Geminids and Leonids, they're much more visible for the Southern hemisphere observer.

If you're worried about getting hit by something from the sky, you should be! However it's not going to be from a meteor shower. The big hazard is earth-crossing asteroids, like Apophis (but that's a story for another day). While the Earth takes on about 14 million tons of meteoric dust in a year, the grand total, when compared to the mass of the Earth's atmosphere, is negligible.

What is potentially interesting is that some say the seeding blocks for life came from meteoric dust; this is part of the theory of "PanSpermia" by Sir Fred Hoyle. While not widely trafficked in astro biological circles, it hasn't been ruled out entirely. Certainly, anything that could survive both the vacuum of space, crossing the Van Allen belts, and survive the thousand degree temperatures of crashing through the atmosphere would be quite durable and would likely out compete anything it found on the ground. On the other hand, it's great fodder for science fiction stories, particularly down here in Australia, where our experiences with invasive species have been so colorful.

A World Of Telescopes

Trying to find an ideal telescope for your home can be a troublesome task. It is not the shear number of telescopes available, but that not that many places specialize in telescopes to use for viewing objects in space. A telescope is a scientific instrument, and as such it is not something that is as easy as finding cutlery! Though it is still possible to find a good telescope for your home, it will require some research. You may even be lucky enough to have a specialist telescope seller near to where you live. If you do not have access to a specialist telescope store, then all is not lost, as online there are many specialist telescope sellers, dedicated to the amateur astronomy, and the semi pro astronomer alike.

Why Not Buy A Telescope For $100 Or Less From A Local Toy Store?

For many people into astronomy, there first telescope indeed was a toy store purchased telescope, which retailed for $100 or less. Most people, who have done astronomy for years, will tell you not to buy a cheap telescope, like those in the toy store. The reason for this negative enthusiasm is that these cheap telescopes have made more people leave astronomy, than they would have if they had a good telescope from the beginning.

Life is a learning experience, and if you can not afford an expensive telescope, then these cheap telescopes can help you get some enjoyment out of the universe. They are great for viewing local objects in our solar system, like our Moon and Saturn, Jupiter, and for terrestrial viewing. So if you simply want to see whether you like astronomy or not, then these cheap telescopes can be of value. Just remember that there is much more to the universe, than what these cheap telescopes show.

What Telescope To Buy

When buying a telescope, you will encounter mainly one of two instruments. One is a reflector and the other is a refractor. One type of telescope uses a mirror to reflect light, whereas the other is similar to a binoculars, but with one lens. The process of how they work does not need to really be delved into, as they both do similar jobs, and that is to let you see the beauty of the universe!

There are many brands that you will find for telescopes; however, the best of brands that I have seen and recommend is Meade telescopes, Orion telescopes, Celestron telescopes. These telescope brands are really the best out there for amateur viewing. They are proven scientific instruments, used by first time telescope users and seasoned astronomers alike. And what is more, they are created by people who love astronomy.

When looking for a telescope, there are many different models you will find. For your first telescope, I suggest you look for a small telescope from the brands listed. The optics is great, and you will not have to invest too much, to start enjoying the hobby of astronomy.

There are many telescope reviews online, and each can help you a bit more to find the telescope you need to kick start your astronomy hobby. With so much helpful information online, and the help you can receive from online astronomy stores, finding a good telescope for your home is so much easier today.

What Are Daily Astrological Planetary Hours (Horas)?

At my very young age I was fascinated by the brilliance, vastness, scope and charm of Astrology. I met with a gentleman in my late 20's who mastered astrology and took me under his wing and taught me everything he knew. I consider him my master and teacher of astrology.

The two topics I showed tremendous interest were Daily Planetary Horas (Hours) and Sarvashtaka Varga (Sanskrit word), a mathematical genius of Indian astrology. He taught me unremittingly ins and outs of these marvelous branches of Astrology. For over 40 years I have used both.

He taught me how to calculate the date and time of birth of any one from their Thumb. Every time he did this, it was precise to the minute and was verified. This was beyond me and could not do it. I confined my research to my two above referred favorites.

Simply put the 7 primary planets SUN, MOON, MARS, MERCURY, JUPITER, VENUS AND SATURN rule each hour of the day in a cyclical order, every day and for ever and influences our daily lives in a significance way.

This idea and this time management system have been in use for centuries. Chaldeans were the first to popularize this magnificent system. For a very long time only 7 planets have been recognized and in use. They are SUN, MOON, MARS, MERCURY, JUPITER, VENUS and SATURN. It has been established after research these 7 planets influence our daily lives.

This makes perfect sense. No wonder, from time immemorial humans have used 7 days in a week (SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, THURSDAY, FRIDAY, SATURDAY). These 7 planets and 7 days are interwoven. This perfectly explains why these 7 primary planets have tremendous influence in our daily lives and all our lives.

It is worth mentioning here the number 7 has spiritual, magical and mystical significance. 7 planets, 7 musical notes, 7 chakras in the practice of yoga, 7 week days, 7 continents, so on and so forth.

Daily planetary hours (horas) system is easy to understand, use and benefit from. Here is how it works:

All Mondays start with and ruled by Moon Hour (Hora) at sunrise. All 2nd hours on Mondays are ruled by Saturn, All 3rd Hours (Hora) are ruled by Jupiter. All 4th Hours (Horas) are ruled by Mars, All 5th Hours are ruled by Sun, All 6th Hours are ruled by Venus and all 7th hours are ruled by Mercury. After completing the 7th hour, the first cycle, Moon hours start the 2nd cycle and rule the 8th hours. The same cycle repeats forever. Moon again starts and rules the 15th hours on Modays. Moon again starts and rules the 22nd hours on Mondays. 23rd hour will be ruled by Saturn, 24th hour ends with Jupiter. The next hour in the cycle will be that of Mars at sunrise on all Tuesdays.

All Tuesdays start with and ruled by Mars at sunrise. You will follow the same cycle, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon, Saturn and Jupiter, This cycle repeats over and over forever. For your information one hora is not exactly 60 minutes. This hora system is based on accurate sun rise and sunset times. These times vary daily and seasonally and therefore 24 horas are slightly different in duration with the 24 calendar hours with 60 minutes duration per hour.

Vedic Cosmology - The Planets of the Material Universe

The cosmology and cosmography of the ancient Vedas is awe inspiring to say the least. The more "modern" of the Vedic texts are known to originate from approximately 3000 B.C., thus being the oldest scientific and religious doctrines known to man. The descriptions of our solar system and what modern astronomy has discovered of the visible universe corresponds with the ancient Vedic knowledge, proving that man has had advanced knowledge of astronomy for thousands of years before our modern civilization began. This article describes the Vedic version of planetary systems from the topmost, eternal planets down through the temporary planetary systems within innumerable universes of this material world.

When saying "cosmic manifestation" we speak of two separate worlds, the spiritual and the material. The spiritual planetary systems are eternal, beyond the limits of the material universes, and belong to a "super dimensional" or "anti-material" dimension. These are beyond the limitations of material time and space and therefore beyond our vision, or powers of perception. In these planetary systems there is no occurrence of creation or dissolution, and these planets are unlimited, indestructible, and eternally existing. There are descriptions of these spiritual planets in the vedic literatures, but this article concentrates on those within the material universe.

The material planetary systems are created at some point in time and will be destroyed at another. They are bound by the influences of time and space. Both of these energies (spiritual and material) are of the same divine source called "brahmajyoti", the spiritual light. About 1/4th of this brahmajyoti is covered by the "mahat-tattva", the material energy, where are found innumerable material universes. The 3/4th portion is the eternal spiritual sky. In the spiritual world are two realms of existence, "Goloka-dhama" and "Hari-dhama". The material world has one realm called "Devi-dhama".

Goloka-dhama is the topmost planet and residence of the Supreme Godhead Sri Sri Radha-Krishna. Below this is Hari-dhama where the spiritual planets of the Vaikunthalokas are situated. Below the Vaikuntha planets is "Mahesh-dhama" (also called Sadasivaloka, or the abode of Lord Siva). This is the realm dividing the spiritual from the material universes. Below Mahesh-dhama is Devi-dhama, the realm of the material universe. It is said that the systems of yoga offer different destinations. Bhakti yoga directs one toward entering Hari-dhama or Goloka-dhama. Jnana yoga directs the aspirant toward entrance to Mahesh dhama, and karma yoga directs one to remain in Devi-dhama, experiencing repeated birth and death in the material worlds.

The Planetary Systems of Devi-Dhama

In the Bhagavad-Gita we find a statement that there are three divisions of material planets in our universe. They are "urdhva-loka" (highest), "madhya-loka" (middle), and "adho-loka" (lower). Above the urdhva-lokas are the coverings of the material universe beyond which lie the eternal realms of existence. Within these three spheres of existence are 14 main planetary systems with different standards of life and duration of existence. The residents of the upper three systems have almost no disease or aging of the body, and they have no sense of fear. As the planetary systems progress downward there is lesser duration of life and standard of living, as well as a greater manifestation of disease and anxiety.

The 14 planetary systems are named as follows, from highest to lowest:

1) Satya-loka

2) Tapa-loka

3) Jana-loka

4) Mahar-loka

5) Svar-loka

6) Bhuvar-loka

7) Bhur-loka

8) Atala-loka

9) Vitala-loka

10) Sutala-loka

11) Talatala-loka

12) Mahatala-loka

13) Rasatala-loka

14) Patala-loka

In one of the Vedic scriptures called the "Hari-vamsa" there is a description as follows: "Above the planetary systems where humans live is the sky. Above the sky is the orbiting sun, which is the entrance point of the heavenly planetary systems. This is the middle of the universe where begins the planets of those elevated by great austerities and penances. The planets above these, up to Satya-loka are the residences of those advanced in spiritual knowledge. All these planets are within the material world and under the control of Devi (Goddess Durga), and therefore called Devi-dhama."

The term "amara" (deathless) is often used to describe the residents of the heavenly planets because their span of life is inconceivable to us, but although they live for millions of years by our calculation, none within the material worlds can live here eternally. In Bhagavad-Gita there is given a description for the life span of those living on Satyaloka. One day is equal to 4,300,000,000 solar years. On other heavenly planets the day is considered to equal six months of our time, and the night also equal to six months on earth. These souls live in their bodies for 10 million of their years.

Time duration such as day, night, months, and years are different in different planetary systems, and there are also different types of human beings, animals, trees, and vegetation. Some of the planets that are visible to us are considered heavenly planets with different timings. Jupiter, Venus, and the Moon are examples of planets where one day is equal to six months on earth. How can that be, one may ask, when we can see these planets orbiting the Sun?

One point of reference that may be difficult for some to understand is crucial to this realization. All planets have different dimensions surrounding them. The dimension of existence visible to our eyes gives us the impression that the other planets in our solar system are mostly devoid of life. In actuality astronomers have found proof of intelligent life on other planets, regardless of the fact that little is yet public knowledge. The purview discernable by our physical eyes, though, cannot enter into the heavenly spheres of these planets where devas, angels, and higher beings exist, nor even that of humans who enjoy an existence far superior to what is obtainable on our planet earth.

Just as on and surrounding earth there are realms of existence inhabited by ethereal beings invisible to our eyes, some highly advanced and others bound by unfortunate circumstances (such as ghosts), all planets have different spheres of existence. We can never gain knowledge of the multi-dimensional reality on earth with our physical eyes, so how could we possibly expect to enter into the higher realities of other planets with them?

There are also different types of oceans on different planets in the material world. "Siddhanta-siromani", an ancient vedic astrological text describes them as being of seven varieties:

1) an ocean of salt water

2) an ocean of milk

3) an ocean of curd

4) an ocean of ghee (clarified butter)

5) an ocean of sugar cane juice

6) an ocean of liquor

7) an ocean of sweet water

Our minds may balk at such a conception of different types of oceans, but why should any of these be more fantastic than the ocean of salt water that we have here on earth?

There are also some eternal planets seemingly situated within this material universe, but they are always inaccessible for human beings. The text "Laghu-Bhagavatamrita" describes these eternal planets as follows: "Above Rudraloka, the planet of Lord Siva, is the planet called Vishnuloka. It is 400,000 miles in circumference, and inaccessible for any mortal living being. Above that Vishnuloka is a golden island called Maha-Vishnuloka in the ocean of salt. Brahma and other demigods sometimes go there to meet Lord Vishnu. Lord Vishnu lies there with Lakshmi (the goddess of fortune). East of here is the "ocean of milk" where within is the island of Svetadvipa, where Lord Vishnu also resides with Goddess Lakshmi. His transcendental island is 200,000 square miles and covered with desire trees for the pleasure of the Supreme Lord." This planet is called "Dhruvaloka" and we see it as the polestar. It is said to be 3,800,000 yojanas above the sun (one yojana is equal to 8 miles). Above Dhruvaloka by 10,000,000 yojanas is Maharloka. Above Maharloka by 20,000,000 yojanas is Janaloka, a further 80,000,000 yojanas lies Tapaloka, and above by 120,000,000 yojanas is Satyaloka. The Vaikuntha planets begin 26,200,000 yojanas beyond Satyaloka.

The scripture "Vishnu Purana" describes that the outer covering of the universe begins 260,000,000 yojanas above the sun. About 70,000 yojanas below the earth begin the seven lower planetary systems of Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala, and Patala. Below these planets 30,000 yojanas is the Garbhodaka Ocean where Sesa Naga lies. This ocean is 249,800,000 yojanas deep. This gives an approximate diameter of the universe as 500,000,000 yojanas or 4,000,000,000 miles. These distances are calculated according to the distances between the planetary "planes" of existence. Actual distances between planets may be more.

The higher planetary systems are the realms of devas, demigods, and angels. Bhuvarloka is the abode of ghostly spirits, and the lower planets are populated by those of demoniac consciousness as well as the snakes known as "Nagas". Development of higher consciousness, which also includes advanced intellectuality, starts with human beings and further increases among the denizens of higher planetary systems. The earth is situated close to the middle of these planetary systems.

Descriptions of the Planetary Systems Satyaloka

This is the abode of Lord Brahma, the progenitor of this material universe. Here there are airplanes controlled by mantra, not by any mechanical means. The residents have mind and intelligence, but no material gross bodies. They feel compassion for those suffering in the lower regions, but do not suffer fear, old age, or death. At the time of final dissolution of the material planets the residents here transform their subtle bodies into spiritual bodies and enter the eternal Vaikuntha planets. Great yogis finally reach this highest planet through the Milky Way, which is the "highway" to this most elevated planet where the duration of life is calculated as 15,480,000,000,000 years.

Tapaloka

This is the abode of the four Kumaras named Sanat, Sanaka, Sanandana, and Sanatana. In this world many great sages also reside due to their advancement through spiritual austerity. The enjoyment available to the residents is inconceivable to us as it is beyond anything of our experience. When there is annihilation of the material universe the residents here also transform their subtle bodies to spiritual and enter the spiritual sky.

Janaloka

This planet, still above the heavenly realms, is another abode of great saints and sages. This planet is populated by mystics who move to higher planets, and eventually transform their subtle bodies to spiritual, when the fire of devastation consumes the material planets. These residents can move between any planets within the material universe as mystic "spacemen" at speeds unthinkable to us.

Maharloka

When fully purified from material desire and contamination through sacrifice, penance, and charity one can reach the heavenly planets, and if advancing further can pass through the higher orbits to reach Maharloka. The greatest of sages, such as Bhrigu Muni, live in this place. It is situated beyond the "Sisumara", which is the pivotal point for the turning of the universe. Advanced yogis reach this planet and live here for 4,300,000,000 solar years. When the fire of devastation almost reaches this planet the residents transport themselves to Satyaloka where they live further before this highest of planets is destroyed. They then transform their subtle bodies to spiritual and enter the spiritual realms.

Dhruvaloka

In every material universe is one Vaikuntha planet with an ocean of milk where Lord Vishnu resides on an island called Svetadvipa. This planet is Dhruvaloka. Living here are completely pure personalities. In our universe this planet is seen as the polestar and is situated above the planets of the Seven Rishis. As it is a spiritual planet, it is eternal and therefore remains when all other planets within the material universes are destroyed. It is said that this planet is the pivot for all material stars' and planets' orbits. All planets travel at high speeds in orbit, including the sun, which travels 16,000 miles per second in its orbit around Dhruvaloka. The planets of the seven sages are stars just below this planet that also orbit Dhruvaloka. They are always concerned with the welfare of the living entities within this material world and send emissaries to bring spiritual knowledge at various times and circumstances.

Sanaiscara (Saturn)

Saturn is considered an inauspicious planet astrologically, as he gives painful lessons to us here on earth. It is situated 1,600,000 miles above Jupiter and passes through one sign of the zodiac every 30 months.

Brihaspati (Jupiter)

Jupiter is considered a most auspicious heavenly planet and is generally considered favorable astrologically, depending on placement at the time of our births here on earth. It is a planet of devas, and situated 1,600,000 miles above Mars.

Angaraka (Mars)

Mars is considered to be a malefic planet, which creates lack of rainfall on earth and almost always is capable of creating unfavorable influences here. It is situated 1,600,000 miles above Mercury.

Buddha (Mercury)

Mercury is said to be the son of the moon and is 1,600,000 miles beyond the planet Venus. As does Venus, he sometimes moves behind the sun, sometimes in front, and sometimes along with it. Generally the influence of Mercury is said to be auspicious astrologically, except when not moving with the sun. At such times this planet causes great storms on earth.

Shukra (Venus)

Venus is considered a most auspicious and favorable planet, and is also of the heavenly planets. Venus is said to bring rainfall, another reason for it being considered auspicious to life on earth.

Chandraloka (Moon)

The Moon is one of the four most important residences of the demigods. Those who worship the demigods through sacrifice aimed at great material enjoyment are promoted to the Moon. Here the celestial, intoxicating beverage called "soma" is available. It is not possible to enter into or even see the actual heavenly dimensions of this planet with our present eyes. The Moon passes through the entire zodiac in approximately one month. He influences the growth of vegetation and therefore considered the life-giver for all living beings on earth.

Surya (Sun)

The Sun is the source of light and heat for our universe. Modern science considers many stars to also be suns, but in the vedic literature they are considered to be planets of varying material elements, but not the center, as is the Sun. Surya, the sun god, is considered an expansion of Narayana (a form of Lord Vishnu). He controls the seasons here on earth. It is situated between Bhuloka and Bhuvarloka, rotating through the time circle of the zodiac. Yogis practicing hatha or ashtanga yoga, or those performing agnihotra sacrifices, worship the sun for their benefit. The demigods residing on the sun planet have bodies made of fire, necessary for life here.

Rahu

Rahu is said to be an invisible planet, which is situated 80,000 miles below the sun. It causes solar and lunar eclipses, as Rahu, along with Ketu, are the north and south nodes of the moon respectively.

Siddhaloka, Caranaloka, & Vidyadharaloka

These planets are 80,000 miles below Rahu. The residents of these planets are born with natural mystic powers, including the ability to fly without mechanical means, even to other planets. They have all the mystic siddhis, and being materially perfect beings can control gravity, time, and space. Their arts, culture, and sciences are far superior to that knowledge possessed by we here in the earthly realm.

Yakshaloka & Rakshashaloka

Beneath these higher planetary systems, in the sky called "antariksha", are the residences of the Yakshas, Rakshashas, Pisachas, ghosts, and other etheral beings. This realm extends as far as the wind blows and clouds float in the sky. Above this there is no air. Bhu-mandala (Middle Earth)

The planetary systems of middle earth (Bhumandala or Bhuloka) are abodes of both standards of living such as we enjoy on our planet, as well as some heavenly abodes where living beings may "stop" on the way to, or from, births in the heavenly planetary systems. There are seven planetary systems, which are divided by seven oceans. The names of the planetary systems are Jambu, Plaksha, Salmali, Kusha, Krauncha, Shaka, and Pushkara. Each system is twice as large as the one preceding it, and each ocean between the systems are made respectively of salt water, sugarcane juice, liquor, ghee, milk, emulsified yogurt, and sweet water. Bhumandala is shaped like a lotus flower and the seven planetary systems are in the whorl of the lotus. The radius of Bhumandala extends as far as the sunshine, and the limits of our vision here to see the stars and moon. As the sunshine reaches earth from a distance of 93,000,000 miles, this is the radius of the plane of Bhumandala.

Lower Planetary Systems

Below the earth are seven other systems called Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala, and Patala. These lower planetary systems are the same size as the earth planet, and begin 560,000 miles below earth. Sunshine does not reach these planets and light comes from jewels on the hoods of serpents. These planets are populated by persons of great power and opulence, yet of demoniac consciousness, who have reached here through austerity aimed at material enjoyment without spiritual development. They do not become old and diseased and fear only the time factor, which ultimately must destroy their abodes. Therefore they are given the name of "bila-svarga", or subterranean heavenly planets.

The residents here enjoy a standard of material comfort more opulent than even the higher planets due to their desires for high standards of sensual enjoyment, wealth, and influence. The residents are known as Daityas, Danavas, and Nagas and are all engaged in illusory material enjoyment with no thought of spiritual liberation. There are incredible feats of architecture in their cities bedecked with valuable jewels in houses, gardens, compounds, etc. All residents drink juices and bathe in herbal elixirs which free them from any anxiety or physical disease, as well as any sign of physical aging. The visual beauty of these artificial heavens surpasses that of the higher planets and this sensual atmosphere completely captures the mind, allowing no thoughts but those directed toward sensual pleasure and happiness. Since time is not divided into days and nights due to no sunshine reaching these planets, they have no fear produced by time. Only at the time of dissolution does anxiety and fear consume them.

Narakaloka, the Hellish Planetary Systems

Beneath the planet Patalaloka, and slightly above the water of the Garbhodaka ocean, are the Naralokas, or the hellish planetary systems. These planets are of different degrees of suffering for those who must endure life there. Here on earth we can see many hellish circumstances of suffering for people, but nothing like what is experienced on these planets. They are said to be a place of rectification for those who commit the most abominable actions while living as humans on the earthly plane. Although life here seems like it goes on for an eternity, in actual fact the duration of one's "karmic sentence" here may be only seconds or moments. There are 28 different hellish planets described in the Vedic literatures.

These descriptions of the material creation, as well as the spiritual planets, may be found in several Vedic literatures to a far greater depth. I have out of necessity greatly abbreviated the information given here.

All of the planetary systems in the material world will in time be annihilated. This annihilation takes place in two ways. Partial annihilation occurs every 4,300,000,000 solar years, or at the end of each day on Satyaloka. This extends from the hellish planets through all lower planetary systems up to the heavenly planets. The highest planets are not annihilated at this time. The entire cosmic manifestation is wound up in the universal form of God every 8,600,000,000 x 30 x 12 x 100 solar years. The spiritual world, which is never annihilated, simply absorbs the material creation. It is described that before the destruction there is no rain for hundreds of years. Everything dries up and dies due to continuous sunshine. The sun becomes 12 times as powerful as was previously. Then there are horrendous rains that absorb everything into water.

The mortal bodies of living entities, including all vegetation, merge into the earth. The earth merges into its subtle sensation of fragrance. Fragrance merges into water, and water merges into its quality of taste. That taste merges into fire, which merges into form. Form merges into touch and touch into ether. Ether finally merges into the sensation of sound. The senses all merge into their origins, the presiding devas and demigods, then they merge into the controlling mind, which merges into ego in the mode of goodness. Sound becomes one with ego in the mode of ignorance, and ego (the first of all the physical elements), merges into the total nature. The total material nature dissolves into the modes (goodness, passion, and ignorance). These modes then merge into the unmanifest form of nature, and that unmanifest form merges into time. Time merges into the Supreme Godhead, present as Maha-Vishnu, the original creator of the cosmic manifestation. The origin of all life merges into God, the unborn Supreme Soul who remains one without a second, and from whom all creation and annihilation takes place. This annihilation of the material world is the exact reverse of the process of creation. Everything ultimately rests within the Supreme Absolute.

Some Hubble Space Telescope History

The Hubble Space Telescope, named after Edwin Hubble, was built by NASA, and launched into space in 1990. At the time, astronomers the world over expected great discoveries to be made. With this magnificent telescope's help, we could see further into space than ever before.

Why were people so thrilled by Hubble?

With a piece of technology like the Hubble Telescope, we could get a much better look into outer space and learn more about the universe. We could find new black holes, and look back billions of years in time to the very beginnings of our universe.

The Hubble Telescope today

Today, this wonderful piece of equipment has more than met our expectations. It brings us awe inspiring images, and aids us in making new discoveries all the time. With the Hubble's help, we now have definitive proof that dark matter, or energy, is simply matter that we can't see with the naked eye.

Did you know it's estimated that only about ten percent of the Universe is visible?

So, why is the Hubble so important? Well, before the Hubble was launched into space, scientists and astronomers could only learn about space by studying starlight, and the only pictures they had were taken here on earth.

A major step forward in the field of Astronomy

With the help of this huge reflective telescope, discoveries are made every day, and we get spectacular images of space that will take your breath away.

A picture is worth a thousand words

The pictures taken by the Hubble are not your average pictures. They are 20 times larger than pictures taken with a digital camera. Even at that size, they are crystal clear and full of color.

Some Hubble history

Construction of the Hubble commenced in 1977 and was finished in 1985. 5 years later, on April 25, 1990 Hubble was launched into space. the first pictures weren't so great. NASA later discovered why. The giant mirror in Hubble was too flat on one edge.

In 1993, a camera was added to Hubble, and this corrected the problem.

In 1997, Hubble was serviced a second time and older instruments were replaced.

In October 1997, NASA extended the telescope's operations through the year 2010. So it seems as if we have much to discover about the world of Astronomy and space, because this wonderful telescope will continue bringing us images for years to come.

Saturn is Visible Without Using a Telescope

Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, has the most spectacular set of rings in the solar system. Saturn has been known since prehistoric times. Saturn is visibly flattened (oblate) when viewed through a small telescope; its equatorial and polar diameters vary by almost 10% (120,536 km vs. Saturn also exhibits long-lived ovals (red spot at center of image at right) and other features common on Jupiter. Saturn's rings remained unique in the known solar system until 1977 when very faint rings were discovered around Uranus (and shortly thereafter around Jupiter and Neptune). Saturn is the least dense of the planets; its specific gravity (0. Saturn is visibly flattened (oblate) when viewed through a small telescope; its equatorial and polar diameters vary by almost 10% (120,536 km vs.

Rings

Rings are 270,000 km in diameter, but only a few hundred meters thick. Early observations of Saturn were complicated by the fact that the Earth passes through the plane of Saturn's rings every few years as Saturn moves in its orbit. Saturn's rings are extraordinarily thin: though they're 250,000 km or more in diameter they're less than one kilometer thick. Two prominent rings (A and B) and one faint ring (C) can be seen from the Earth. The origin of the rings of Saturn (and the other jovian planets) is unknown. The current set of rings maybe only a few hundred million years old.

Satellites

The rings and the larger satellites are visible with a small astronomical telescope. There are satellites within the rings which result in the gaps that are present between some rings. Though they may have had rings since their formation, the ring systems are not stable and must be regenerated by ongoing processes, perhaps the breakup of larger satellites. Saturn has at least 35 naturally occurring satellites. All five, like the newly discovered four outer moons of Saturn, are irregular satellites.

Saturn's interior is hot (12000 K at the core) and Saturn radiates more energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Saturn's rings, unlike the rings of the other planets, are very bright (albedo 0. Saturn is the most oblate (flattened) planet in our Solar System. Saturn's outermost ring, the F-ring, is a complex structure made up of several smaller rings along which "knots" are visible. Saturn also exhibits long-lived ovals (red spot at center of image at right) and other features common on Jupiter. Saturn's bright rings are made of ice chunks (and some rocks) that range in size from the size of a fingernail to the size of a car. Saturn is visible without using a telescope, but a low-power telescope is needed to see its rings. Saturn is the only planet in our Solar System that is less dense than water. Saturn's auroral displays are caused by an energetic wind from the Sun that sweeps over the planet, much like Earth's aurora, which is occasionally seen in the nighttime sky.

Backyard Astronomy - Gazing Into The Past

Astronomy continues to be one of the more popular hobbies. One of the major reasons is because you can stargaze just about anywhere. Although country settings away from city lights are best, everyone can see the moon. And even though the closest star (after our sun), Alpha Centauri is over 4 light years away, can be seen easily with the naked eye.

While simple stargazing with the naked eye is great fun, using a telescope can be awe inspiring. The view of the heavens through even a small telescope is something that has to be experienced to be appreciated. Even though modern technology allows us to view the celestial realm with images on tv and through the internet, there is nothing quite like seeing it though a telescope.

Different Telescopes

There are basically three kinds of telescope. The refractor and reflector and catadioptric. The refractor telescope collects and bends light with a convex lense and eyepiece. This bending or refracting concentrates the light rays to a small focal point making things appear larger or brighter. The reflector telescope on the other hand, as its name suggests, reflects light from a convex mirror in the back of the telescope to another mirror in the front and finally to the eyepiece. The convex shape of the mirrors "scoop up" and concentrate the light to a focal point thereby magnifying an object. Caution: Objects in a telescope appear closer than they really are!

The third type, called Catadioptric, combines features from both reflecting and refracting telescopes.

Which one is best? For image quality and portability, my choice is the catadioptric. It's easily transported and has the best features of both the reflector and refractor telescopes. Because of the design, catadioptric telescopes are almost completely free of the coma found in reflectors and the chromatic aberration in refractors. Chromatic aberration is the distortion of color due to a lenses inability to bring various colors in the light into focus. Coma is the distortion of an object at the edge of your field of view.

Convenience is another factor to consider. If you have to transport your telescope as I do you'll appreciate the catadioptric's compact size, light weight and how easy it is to set up and take down.

Travel Through Time

We all know light travels at an unimaginable speed of 186,000 miles per second. Even our sun's light takes about 8 minutes to reach us once it's left the surface. Now think about our closest neighbor, Alpha Centauri. It's over 4 light years away so the light from its' surface began its' journey over 4 years ago. We are actually seeing it as it was more than 4 years in the past. In a very real sense we are looking back in time. Think back to what you were doing 4 years ago. Whatever it was, while you were doing it, light emanated from the surface of Alpha Centauri and came screaming along at 186,000 miles per second on the long journey toward earth, arriving here just a few minutes ago. Alpha Centauri is actually part of a star system. 3 separate stars, Alpha Centauri A and B form a binary while Alpha Centauri C is 13,000 Astronomical Units (AU) away. This is part of the reason it's easily seen with the naked eye, you are actually looking at 3 stars instead of 1.

Closer To Home

One need not look outside our own solar system to find amazing sites in the night sky. The moon may look smooth when seen with the naked eye but train a telescope on it and prepared to be wowed. The level of detail will depend on your telescope but the craters and jagged mountains are clearly visible. The best viewing, in my opinion is when the moon is in a crescent stage as the shadow created by the earth allows for much more detail to be seen. I saw the moon for the first time through a telescope years ago. I watched as it slowly drifted past my field of view and could almost feel its' movement. Of course I knew it moved along its' orbit around the earth but to actually see it moving was an incredible experience.

Saturn, probably the most fun to observe because of the rings, makes for spectacular stargazing. Depending on the time of year, the rings of Saturn are visible and to this observer, quite breathtaking. While I couldn't discern any colors or variations in the rings, they appear quite distinctly from the planet itself, something I'd seen only in books prior to that.

Stand on the shores of any ocean on earth and get a sense of the sheer enormity of it. Then realize that it's not even a drop in a bucket by comparison to the size of the sky it sits beneath. Looking up at the stars at night makes you realize just how massive everything really is. There is no number that can truly measure or even estimate its' size or dimensions. The only thing that can even remotely compare to the wonder of space is the imagination of those who view it.

Radar Astronomy-The Ins and Outs of New Technology

NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, using technology similar in some ways to that used to power microwave ovens, is detecting and imaging asteroids by beaming radar signals toward the objects, then collecting and analyzing the reflected waves. Radar astronomy doesn't require a night sky or a space probe to find and analyze the objects-just the world's largest dish antennas. Radar pulses are beamed toward selected targets and the reflected "echoes" are collected and analyzed to reveal information about surface features, rotation, as well as internal structure and density of the asteroids.

Closer targets provide better signals and therefore more accurate information from which three dimensional models can be imaged, and the rotation of the asteroid can be defined. A good signal can enable a spatial resolution of less than 10 meters. Echoes from more than 190 near-Earth asteroids have been detected, showing great variations in structure and composition, with no two alike. They can be stony, metallic, smooth or coarse in texture, traveling alone or with satellites, and come in an endless variety of shapes and sizes.

Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, with its 100-foot diameter telescope, and the 70 meter Goldstone antenna, located in the Mojave Desert of southern California, are the only two places in the world performing effective radar astronomy. Each complements the other, making an effective asteroid detection partnership. Researchers, using the antennas of Arecibo and Goldstone, were able to observe the near-Earth asteroid 1999 KW4 and determine it to be a double asteroid, or binary, comprised of two rubble clusters orbiting each other. Although the asteroid passes near Earth occasionally, and is classified as a Potentially Hazardous Asteroid, the information provided by the observatories indicated that it will not cross Earth's path for at least 1,000 years.

Radar astronomy has been shown to be vital for locating asteroids and predicting the orbits of the ones that could pose a danger to the Earth, as this form of asteroid detection and analysis has proven to be much more accurate than observations made by optical instruments. Radar astronomy would also provide more accurate information about any approaching comets, including their composition and projected path.

Future technology is planned which will make it possible to discern surface features on asteroids with four times the amount of detail than is possible now. It is also suggested that before any space mission to an asteroid, the necessary pre-flight, scientific analysis will depend upon the information gathered by radar astronomy.

New Star in the Constellation Perseus

It has been reported that periodic comet Holmes 17P brightened over one million-fold over the course of a single day by the end of October, with backyard astronomers all over the world observing the new star in the Perseus constellation on October 24, 2007. Erupting from a very dim magnitude 17 to about magnitude 2.5, its star like nucleus instantly expanded into a round little disk, visible to binoculars and telescopes as nothing every seen before.

Yet in the middle of October, it had been simply a nonentity in between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars. Up until recently, no one know exactly what caused such an event, but scientists lately have been able to train the Hubble Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 on Comet Holmes in an attempt to shed light on what was actually happening with it.

The very first time the Hubble telescope actually looked at Comet Holmes was back in 1999, a time when the comet's nucleus of the comet was too small to measure it directly. At that time, astronomers had the ability to infer the nucleus' diameter. This was done by measuring it through its brightness, which was approximately 3.4 kilometers, which according to the November 18, 2007, Nobel Intent article, is about the distance between the Arc de Triomphe and the Louvre glass pyramid in its courtyard.

Recent imagery sent out by the Hubble show three spurs of dust, along with a dust outburst west of the nucleus. But what they do not show is the clear reason for its tremendous brightening. Another comet, Schwassmann-Wachmann 3 (SW3), at another time was observed by the Hubble as it ejected a number of mini-comets after a similar brightening. The images from the ground of Holmes seem to possibly suggest that a large piece has broken off-resulting in some of the excess brightness, with it disintegrating into dust. But the images from space refuse to allow the Hubble to spy any of these broken-off pieces, due to its large distance from the planet Earth (1.6 AU). Yet none of this has been proved as confirmation other than in theory alone.

In November of 1892, the Holmes comet was seen also as a major eruption similar to that of today, with English amateur, Edwin Holmes, the first individual to see it. It reached a 4th and 5th magnitude only to fade in the following weeks with a second eruption occurred 2.5 months after this. Holmes was a regular observer of the M31 galaxy, referred to as the Andromeda, and saw a comet with a coma about five arc minutes across, with an unparalleled bright nucleus.